Speech Play and Verbal Art: 

Genres:

• Iconicity 
• Sound Symbolism/ Onomatopoeia 
  
• Reduplication
  
• Disguised Speech, secret codes/languages (ie pig Latin, Klingon?), speech disguise
• Puns 
• Bilingual puns
  
• Pragmatics
  
• Syntax and Semantics
  
• Jokes
• Riddle jokes
  
• Narrative jokes
  
• Interethnic jokes and jokes across social boundaries 
  
• Dirty jokes 
  
• Ethnic jokes 
  
• Metajokes
  
• Put-ons, trickster behavior, trickster tales 
• Proverbs 
• Riddles 
• Verbal Dueling 
• Word games and puzzles 
• Figures of speech
• Antithesis
  
• Anastrophe
  
• Parenthesis
  
• Apposition
  
• Ellipsis
  
• Asyndeton
  
• Polysyndeton
  
• Anaphora
  
• Anadiplosis
  
• Climax
  
• Antimetabole 
  
• Polypopton
  
• Chiasmus 
  

Verbal Art

Verbal Art as Performance

Bauman suggested communication can be accomplished through a couple frameworks--insinuation, joking, imitation, translation, and quotation. I thought insinuation was an interesting one, in that the speaker expresses a message, but also simultaneously attempts to relay a covert message to the listener. The dual meaning in the message is certainly a kind of art on its own. Joking appeals to a sense of humor, and words become comical. Translation, too, can result in varying interpretations and meaning will change. The frameworks just mentioned, however,  are just a few of many.  

He also later mentions folktale, legends, myths, riddles, proverbs, "special codes", figurative language, and gossip as domains of speech activity where verbal art can be analyzed.

It also seems verbal art and performance is culture-specific. Verbal art becomes associated with societal conventions, and meaning is determined by what is commonly agreed upon. Jokes don't have the same meaning across cultures; certain words used in one culture simply don't exist in the culture of another. Even story-telling sometimes requires a certain style of artistic, aesthetic, and descriptive speech. And an excellent story-teller not only demonstrates his ability to entertain a crowd and hold them in rapt attention, but also shows his competence and prestige as a skill-full orator. 

Bauman also notes "ordinary speech" that is stylistically unmarked; there's nothing special or extraordinary about it. Yet in the realm of story-telling, speech AND performance go hand-in-hand; there is something much more enriching and enthralling about this genre of speech activity. 

Bauman also distinguished between the Malagasy's informal speech and "Kabary talk", or a kind of ceremonial, oratory way of speaking . On the same note, I can't help but notice a kind of parallel between Malagasy speech and American speech; we, in a way, have a vaguely similar system. Amongst friends, we find ourselves speaking very informally; our word choice is very lax and casual. Amongst figures of higher status, however, we may change our speech and select words that sound more sophisticated, intelligent, and respectful. Image, reputation, and face become a priority, and we may feel as if we have to leave a good impression. 

 

"Emergent culture" was mentioned, where new meanings and values, new experiences and practices are being created. There is a power inherent in performance that allows the performer to transform his social structure, to gain control over his social world. 

Critique of a Comedy 

Something can certainly be said about humor. It's oftentimes said that laughter is the remedy to any situation. Yet it's easy to overlook the fact that laughter is only made possible through words--very funny words. In the genre of jokes, words are critical. WHAT is said and HOW it's said will most likely determine if a crowd roars in laughter, or if they awkwardly sit there just dazed, confused, and utterly clueless. The other day, I was watching a stand-up comedy show by a rather novice comedian--his name was Omid Djalili and barely started doing stand-up comedy. He had the reputation of a class-clown during his younger years, and even in the work-place he was still entertaining all his colleagues with his witty sense of humor. It wasn't until one of his friends suggested he try out for stand-up gigs that he achieved a little fame in the comedy world. As an Iranian, Omid based most of his comedy acts on stereotypes of Middle Easterners and misinterpretations of them. The skit I was watching began with him joking, in a very thick Middle Eastern accent, about Iranians and, according to him, their "odd habits". Later on, he revealed he was English and began talking in his normal English voice, which also belied a thick English accent. The audience was shocked at the revelation, especially because he seemed like a real, legitimate Iranian; he was so convincing, he truly had the audience fooled. The remainder of the skit, Omid would poke fun at his ethnic background and tell stories of how everyone always mistook him as an Iranian, and how he was always misjudged as a possible terrorist. This comedy act was a great illustration of speech performance and verbal art. Though he was great at telling jokes (how he worded it and what he said), Omid was also skilled at impersonating various accents, and that, in part, contributed to what a huge hit he was. Though the actual words were important, there was also much more involved in this performance--voice tone, pitch, inflection, pauses, facial expressions, body language--all this works in conjunction with WORDS to ultimately create a very entertaining comedy performance. It also showed Omid's control over the performance, as well as his competence as a performer. It's also interesting to note that joking can be an easy way to gain acceptance, to turn the tides and transform something different and feared into something that everyone can appreciate. Through humor and comedy, many comedians like Omid are able to turn misunderstandings, ill-informed notions, and stereotypes into something that's funny, something that people can share, learn from, and value. Omid's self-mockery became a powerful tool to break down stereotypes and debunk myths about his ethnic background. Though the jokes were at his expense, he was able to shed light on and raise awareness about misconceptions regarding his heritage. In this situation, humor became a disguise for his motive to reveal truth about his culture. At the end of his skit, Omid himself admitted that he appealed to his background and certain stereotypes in order to entertain his audience; however, he also imparted an important message--by mocking himself, he hoped to share with the audience an appreciation for cultural diversity. 

Readings 9/8

Jakobson

Any verbal behavior is goal-directed, but the aims are different and the conformity of the means used to the effect aimed at is a problem that evermore preoccupies inquirers into the diverse kinds of verbal communication. 

Distinguish between synchrony and diachrony. 

For any speech community, there exists a unity of language, but this over-all code represents a system of interconnected subcodes; each language encompasses several concurrent patterns which are each characterized by a different function. (ie registers and dialects?) 

Six basic functions of verbal communication:

1. Emotive

2. Poetic

3. Phatic

4. Conative

5.  Referential 

6. Metalingual

Six factors involved in verbal communication:

Addresser --> Context, Message // Contact, Code --> Addressee

(Emotive, expressive function conveying an attitude)

The traditional model of language is confined to three functions: emotive, conative, and referential. 

First person--Addresser

Second person--Addressee

Third person--inanimate or absent object (converted to second person in magic)

Speech is focused on the CODE--it performs a METALINGUAL function. Example: "I'm not following you; what do you mean?" In this case, the addressee checks whether the addresser is using the same speech code. 

Saying "Joan and Margery" versus "Margery and Joan" does not imply you favor Joan over Margery; rather, the former sounds smoother. Thus, VERBAL ART. 

Paronomastic? (definition) 

Epic poetry, focused on the third person, strongly involves the REFERENTIAL function of language. Lyric is oriented toward the first person, and is intimately linked with the EMOTIVE function. Poetry of the second person is imbed with the CONATIVE function. 

Poetry and Metalanguage are in diametrical opposition to each other--metalanguage uses sequence to build an equation, and poetry uses the equation to build a sequence. 

What is the indispensable feature inherent in any piece of poetry? (Recall selection and combination). 

Poetry, in the wider sense of the word, deals with poetic function NOT ONLY in poetry, but also outside of poetry. 

Hymes

Language is a basic science of man because it provides a link between the biological and sociocultural levels. 

Important note: Linguistics will remain the discipline responsible for coordinating knowledge about verbal behavior from the viewpoint of language itself. 

Ethnography of speaking is concerned with the situations and uses, patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity in its own right. 

Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic 

Paradigmatic requires discovering a relevant frame or context, identifying the items which contrast within it, and determining the dimensions of contrast for the items within the set so defined. 

The use of a linguistic form identifies a range of meanings. A context can support a range of meanings. When a form is used in a context, it eliminates the meanings possible to that context other than those that form can signal; the context eliminates from consideration the meanings possible to the form other than those that context supports. 

Description of semantic habits depends upon contexts of use to define relevant frames, sets of times, and dimensions of contrast. 

Work on paralinguistics: the heuristic, somewhat intuitive, use of the principle of contrast within a frame. 

Structural analysis means a scientific and moral commitment to the inductive discovery of units, criteria, and patternings that are valid in terms of the system itself. 

-->How many factors and functions are there in a given determinate system?

The delimitation of the speech economy of a group is in relation to a a population or community, however defined, and not in relation to the homogeneity or boundaries of a linguistic code. 

--> If several dialects or languages are in used, all are considered together as part of the speech activity of the group. 

Three aspects of speech economy:

1. Speech events

2. Constituent factors of speech events

3. Functions of speech

SPEECH EVENTS:

1. What are instances of speech events?

2. What classes of speech events are recognized of can be inferred?

3. What are the dimensions of contras,t the distinctive features, which differentiate them? 

FACTORS IN SPEECH EVENTS (which serve as an initial--etic--framework):

1. Sender / Addresser

2. Receiver / Addressee

3. Message form (becomes significant as an aesthetic and stylistic manner)

4. Channel

5. Code (dialect, jargon, vernacular)

6. Topic

7. Setting (Scene, situation)

FUNCTIONS IN SPEECH EVENTS:

What does a personality, society, or culture contribute to the maintenance of a language? 

1. Expressive (Emotive)

2. Directive (Conative, Pragmatic, Rhetorical, Persuasive)

3. Poetic

4. Contact

5. Metalinguistic 

6. Referential

7. Contextual (Situational)

Expressive vs. Referential functions --> Not sure I completely understand the distinction. How can it be applied? What is an actual example in a speech event? 

Directive function of speech depends on maturation--a child, depending on his age, will have different controls of referential function. (IE a child at 1, then 3, then 4)

The three most prominent types of function (referential, expressive, directive) appear to develop in childhood in partial independence of each other and in varying relation to the process of maturation. 

Doing Things With Words

First day of Class: 8/27/08

I really liked the activities planned out for the day, as each illustrated that words can be used in a variety of different contexts. We can use words to entertain, tell stories, write poetry, put on a comedy show/ tell a joke, gossip, hold a meeting, give a speech, etc etc. Words help us understand and give meaning to the world around us; they substantiate abstract thoughts, and allow for the expression of human feelings and emotions. 

Second day of Class: 9/1/08 

Reflecting on the Articles:

1) In Austin's article, we realized that speech is more than a factual statement that just relays information. In a way, speech is a "performative utterance" where the speaker not only SAYS, but DOES. In this way, speaking is essentially a "speech act." An example is "I now christen this ship the ..." The speaker, in addition to uttering these words, also performs it. 

2) Searle's article concerned Speech Act Theory. Illocutionary acts are basically speech acts, and Illocutionary force refers to the specific function a speech act performs. In a given speech act, we aim to produce an effect with a certain kind of underlying intention. Context is crucial. One statement can be spoken in different ways, and meaning can change entirely depending on what word(s) is emphasized, and how tone and inflection are used. 

In class, we used the example "The cat is on the mat" If this sentence were to be spoken aloud, you could convey various emotions, depending on loudness, pitch, tone of voice, and which word(s) you stress strongly. 

We also talked about greeting and welcoming guests. When you say "welcome", do you truly and genuinely MEAN that you gladly welcome the guest into your home? Or is there a hint of annoyance belying what you say, as if you really don't want to welcome that guest in? Furthermore, we also talked about what "welcome" really means and if alternative ways of saying it ALSO mean the same thing. In this case, I think it depends on context--ie WHO you're inviting in. If welcoming someone important into your home, of course you'd be cordial and respectful and would probably say "welcome. Please come in side" On the other hand, if a family member pops up to your front door, it would be more to the effect of "oh hey, come on in." Or, if it were a close friend, "hey", and that one word alone is equivalent to an invitation to come inside. 

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